Electroconvulsive therapy can differ in its application in three ways: electrode placement, frequency of treatments, and the electrical waveform of the stimulus.
In his books, he advocates replacing psychiatry's use of drugs and electroconvulsive therapy with humanistic approaches, such as psychotherapy, education, and broader human services.
Recent research indicates a biological final common pathway may exist which both electroconvulsive therapy and most current antidepressant drugs have in common.