Responses can be endocrine, autonomic or behavioral, and responses to spikes in blood sodium levels include the release of atrial natriuretic peptide and oxytocin.
Selective autonomic nervous blockade with atropine sulfate (1 mg/kg) or propranolol hydrochloride (8 mg/kg) did not alter the circulatory response to carpaine.
The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers and so deals with the autonomic (involuntary) functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
