Other examples of self-insurance were the partnerships of ship owners, known as "partenrederijen" (which is probably best translated as managed partnership, although these were precursors of joint stock companies).
Employee benefits self-insurance programs are often underwritten by captive insurance companies formed, owned and managed by corporations in both on-shore and off-shore captive domiciles.
Full or exclusive self-insurance is rare, as a combination of self-insurance and commercial insurance usually provides the best cover for the self-insured.
He advises clients on insurance industry mergers, acquisitions and financings, reinsurance transactions, self-insurance and captive programs and insurance regulatory consulting and compliance.
This may include borrowing from family or specialist loan organisations (at times at a prohibitively high interest rate), self-insurance or simple risk avoidance.